Introduction
Background
Speculation over the existence of a "southern land" was confirmed in the early 1820s when British and American commercial operators and British and Russian national expeditions began exploring the Antarctic Peninsula region and other areas south of the Antarctic Circle. In 1840, it was finally established that Antarctica was indeed a continent and not merely a group of islands or an area of ocean. Several exploration "firsts" were achieved in the early 20th century, but the area saw little human activity. Following World War II, however, the continent experienced an upsurge in scientific research. A number of countries have set up a range of year-round and seasonal stations, camps, and refuges to support scientific research in Antarctica. Seven have made territorial claims, with two maintaining the basis for a claim, but most countries do not recognize these claims. In order to form a legal framework for countries' activities on the continent, an Antarctic Treaty was negotiated that neither denies nor recognizes existing territorial claims; it was signed in 1959 and entered into force in 1961. Also relevant to Antarctic governance are the Environmental Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty and the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources.
Visit the Definitions and Notes page to view a description of each topic.
Geography
Location
continent mostly south of the Antarctic Circle
Geographic coordinates
90 00 S, 0 00 E
Map references
Antarctic Region
Area
total : 14.2 million sq km
land: 14.2 million sq km (285,000 sq km ice-free, 13.915 million sq km ice-covered) (est.)
note: fifth-largest continent, following Asia, Africa, North America, and South America, but larger than Australia and the continent of Europe
comparison ranking: total 2
Area - comparative
slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US
Land boundaries
note: see entry on Disputes - international
Coastline
17,968 km
Maritime claims
Australia, Chile, and Argentina claim Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) rights or similar over 200 nm extensions seaward from their continental claims, but like the claims themselves, these zones are not accepted by other countries; 22 of 29 Antarctic Treaty consultative parties have made no claims to Antarctic territory, although Russia and the United States have reserved the right to do so, and no country can make a new claim
Climate
the coldest, windiest, and driest continent on Earth; severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate; higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing; summers characterized by continuous daylight, while winters bring continuous darkness; persistent high pressure over the interior brings dry, subsiding air that results in very little cloud cover
Terrain
about 99% thick continental ice sheet and 1% barren rock, with average elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 m; mountain ranges up to nearly 5,000 m; ice-free coastal areas include parts of southern Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, the Antarctic Peninsula area, and parts of Ross Island on McMurdo Sound; glaciers form ice shelves along about half of the coastline, and floating ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of the continent
Elevation
highest point: Vinson Massif 4,892 m
lowest point: Denman Glacier more than -3,500 m (-11,500 ft) below sea level
mean elevation: 2,300 m
note: the lowest known land point in Antarctica is hidden in the Denman Glacier; at its surface is the deepest ice yet discovered and the world's lowest elevation not under seawater
Natural resources
iron ore, chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals, and coal and hydrocarbons have been found in small noncommercial quantities; mineral exploitation except for scientific research is banned by the Environmental Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty; krill, icefish, toothfish, and crab have been taken by commercial fisheries, which are managed through the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR)
Land use
agricultural land: 0% (2018 est.)
Natural hazards
katabatic (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high interior; frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move clockwise along the coast; large icebergs may calve from ice shelf
volcanism: volcanic activity on Deception Island and isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity rare and weak
Geography - note
the coldest, windiest, highest (on average), and driest continent; during the summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received at the equator in an equivalent period
mostly uninhabitable, 99% of the land area is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, the largest single mass of ice on Earth; it covers an area of 14 million sq km (5.4 million sq mi) and contains 26.5 million cu km (6.4 million cu mi) of ice (almost 62% of the world's fresh water)
People and Society
Population
no permanent inhabitants, but staff is present at year-round and summer-only research stations
note: 56 countries have signed the 1959 Antarctic Treaty; 30 of those operate a number of seasonal-only (summer) and year-round research stations on the continent and its nearby islands; the population varies from approximately 5,000 in summer to 1,100 in winter, with about 1,000 support personnel on ships nearby
as of 2024, peak summer (December-February) maximum capacity in scientific stations - 4,713 total; Argentina 425, Australia 238, Belarus 15, Belgium 55, Brazil 64, Bulgaria 25, Chile 375, China 164, Czechia 32, Ecuador 35, Finland 16, France 136, France and Italy jointly 70, Germany 60, India 72, Italy 150, Japan 130, South Korea 158, New Zealand 85, Norway 60, Peru 30, Poland 41, Russia 211, South Africa 80, Spain 79, Sweden 16, Ukraine 15, United Kingdom 315, United States 1,495 , Uruguay 66 (2024)
winter (June-August) maximum capacity in scientific stations - 1,056 total; Argentina 221, Australia 52, Brazil 15, Chile 114, China 32, France 24, France and Italy jointly 13, Germany 9, India 48, Japan 40, Netherlands 10, South Korea 25, NZ 11, Norway 7, Poland 16, Russia 125, South Africa 15, Ukraine 12, UK 44, US 215, Uruguay 8 (2024)
Environment
Environmental issues
size of ozone hole over continent; ice loss
Climate
the coldest, windiest, and driest continent on Earth; severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate; higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing; summers characterized by continuous daylight, while winters bring continuous darkness; persistent high pressure over the interior brings dry, subsiding air that results in very little cloud cover
Land use
agricultural land: 0% (2018 est.)
Carbon dioxide emissions
15,000 metric tonnes of CO2 (2023 est.)
from coal and metallurgical coke: 2,000 metric tonnes of CO2 (2023 est.)
from petroleum and other liquids: 13,000 metric tonnes of CO2 (2023 est.)
comparison ranking: total emissions 214
Government
Country name
conventional long form: none
conventional short form: Antarctica
etymology: name derived from two Greek words, anti and arktikos, meaning "opposite to the Arctic" or "opposite to the north"
Government type
the Antarctic Treaty and its follow-on agreements govern the use of Antarctica, ensuring it is used only for peaceful purposes and scientific research; signed in 1959 and in force since 1961, the original Treaty bans military activity, weapons testing, and nuclear waste disposal, while allowing military personnel to assist with research or other peaceful efforts; it promotes international cooperation in science, guarantees the free exchange of research, and freezes territorial claims; the Treaty covers all land and ice south of 60° south latitude, and allows Treaty nations to inspect any station or facility
decisions are made by consensus at annual meetings, and member countries implement these decisions through their national laws (see “Legal system”); additional agreements have strengthened the Treaty system, including conventions to protect seals (1972) and other marine life (1980), as well as an environmental protocol (1991, took effect in 1998); the protocol bans mining and includes strict rules on environmental impact, waste, pollution, wildlife, and protected areas; as of December 2024, there are 58 member nations: 29 consultative members, including the 7 claimant countries (Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the UK), and 29 non-consultative members; a permanent Antarctic Treaty Secretariat, established in 2004 in Buenos Aires, supports the system
Legal system
Antarctica is administered through annual Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings that include member nations, observer groups, and experts; decisions are made by consensus and enforced by each country through its own laws, applying to their citizens and operations in the region south of 60° south latitude, including all ice shelves and islands; in the US, the Antarctic Conservation Act prohibits actions like harming native wildlife, introducing non-native species, polluting, or entering protected areas without authorization; the US National Science Foundation and Department of Justice enforce these rules; US expeditions must also notify the Office of Ocean and Polar Affairs at the US Department of State, which informs other Treaty nations, as required under Public Law 95-541
Flag
description: two horizontal bands of navy and white, with a stylized white peak at the center; the peak casts a navy shadow in the shape of a compass arrow pointed south
meaning: the bands represent the long days and nights at Antarctica's extreme latitude; the compass arrow is an homage to the continent's legacy of exploration; the peak and the arrow together create a diamond, symbolizing the hope that Antarctica will continue to be a center of peace, discovery, and cooperation
history: the flag is unofficial; created in 2018, the True South flag has quickly become popular for its simple yet elegant design and has been used by national Antarctic programs, Antarctic nonprofits, and expedition teams
Energy
Coal
imports: 2,000 metric tons (2023 est.)
Petroleum
refined petroleum consumption: 79 bbl/day (2023 est.)
Transportation
Ports
total ports: 8 (2024)
large: 0
medium: 0
small: 1
very small: 7
ports with oil terminals: 0
key ports: Admiralty Bay, Andersen Harbor, Ellefsen Harbor, McMurdo Station, Melchior Harbor, Port Foster, Port Lockroy, Scotia Bay
Transportation - note
US coastal stations include McMurdo (77 51 S, 166 40 E) and Palmer (64 43 S, 64 03 W); government use only; all ships are subject to inspection in accordance with Article 7 of the Antarctic Treaty; ships must comply with relevant legal instruments and authorization procedures under the Antarctic Treaty (see "Legal System"); The Hydrographic Commission on Antarctica (HCA), a commission of the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), coordinates and facilitates provision of accurate and appropriate charts and other aids to navigation; membership in HCA is open to any IHO Member State whose government has acceded to the Antarctic Treaty and which contributes resources or data to IHO Chart coverage of the area
Military and Security
Military - note
the Antarctic Treaty of 1961 prohibits any measures of a military nature, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military maneuvers, or the testing of any type of weapon; it permits the use of military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes